Year 9: Context, Ethics and Morality

Harper Lee has utilized Scout, a six-year old girl to relate the facts. Yet, the language she uses is not restricted to her age, since that would have severely limited the expressions which Harper Lee needed to give. She makes it clear that the book is being written by the adult Scout recreating her childhood experience.

A varied use of language is noticed throughout the novel. First of all, there is a difference in the language spoken by the whites and the colloquial use of language by the blacks. A compromise is reached by Calpurnia, who uses white man’s language at Atticus’ house, but switches over the black jargon the moment she is amidst the blacks.

Language describes the character of a person too. Ewell uses foul words and obscenities whenever possible, which shows his poor class. Mayella, though not using foul words, betrays a lack of education in her speech.

Atticus is formal in his speech, and his words are often laced with irony and humour. Yet he cannot be considered pompous or having an inflated ego because of this. When speaking to the children, he usually uses simple words which can be easily comprehended.

Jem and Scout sometimes use slang words, typical of their age. While speaking to Uncle Jack, Scout says. "I don’t mean to sass you", and Jem remarks "shoot no wonder, then."

Tom uses the characteristic colloquial English, saying ‘suh’ for ‘sir’ and ‘chillun’ for ‘children’. Yet, he is decent enough not to repeat the foul words used by Bob Ewell, in the courtroom. This indicates that though he has had very little formal education, his good manners and etiquette are innate.

Various derogatory terms for the blacks have also been used, like ‘nigger’, ‘darky’, ‘Negroes’, ‘coloured folk’ and so on; this reflects the attitude of the whites towards the blacks. Thus language has been very adeptly and adroitly used by Harper Lee to enable her novel to read natural. 

The novel approaches whether people are essentially good or essentially evil by dramatizing Scout and Jem's transition from a perspective of childhood innocence, in which they assume that people are good because they have never seen evil, to a more adult perspective, in which they have confronted evil and must incorporate it into their understanding of the world. As a result of this portrayal of the transition from innocence to experience, one of the book's important sub-themes involves the threat that hatred, prejudice, and ignorance pose to the innocent: people such as Tom Robinson and Boo Radley are not prepared for the evil that they encounter, and as a result, they are destroyed. Even Jem is victimised to an extent by his discovery of the evil of racism during and after the trial. Where Scout is able to maintain her basic faith in human nature despite Tom's conviction, Jem's faith in justice and in humanity is badly damaged, and he retreats into a state of disillusionment.

In contrast to the evil and injustice depicted in the novel Harper Lee expounds the importance of compassion by providing many examples of compassion and understanding in the novel.

The most important lesson Scout and Jem learn comes from Atticus, the lesson of compassion:

"First of all," he said, "if you can learn a simple trick, Scout, you'll get along a lot better with all kinds of folks. You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view - "
"Sir?"
" - until you climb into his skin and walk around in it." (Chapter 3, p. 35)

In the course of the novel Scout "climbs into the skin" of Miss Fisher, Walter Cunningham, Jem, Mrs Dubose and Boo Radley. She also learns to respect the differences between people, as Calpurnia and Mr Dolphus Raymond have learned to do.

Much is said about formal schooling in the novel. Harper Lee gives a very critical view of methods of teaching and of some educational jargon in Chapters 2, 3 and 4, and Atticus voices his criticism of some educational philosophies in his speech to the jury in Chapter 20. Certainly Scout is depicted as learning more from Atticus and Calpurnia and from her experiences outside school than from her formal schooling. The scenes at school provide a direct counterpoint to Atticus's effective education of his children: Scout is frequently confronted with teachers who are either frustratingly unsympathetic to children's needs or morally hypocritical.

Atticus, to many people, is an heroic character. He stands up for what he believes is right (for example, is, equal rights for African-Americans) despite the personal cost to himself and his family. He says to Scout that if he didn't defend Tom Robinson he wouldn't be able to hold his head up in town, he couldn't represent the county in the legislature and he couldn't tell Jem or Scout not to do anything ever again. Being instructed to represent Tom Robinson at trial sets Attics on a journey: a hero's journey.

The larger moral questions of the book are explored from the perspective of children. In a sense, the plot of the story charts Scout's moral education and how she moves from innocence to adulthood. This theme is explored most importantly through the parent-child relationships between Atticus and his children, as he devotes himself to instilling conscience in Jem and Scout.

Atticus guides them to an understanding of the position of other people by repeatedly telling them they should step into another person's shoes and try to see things from that person's viewpoint.

Harper Lee portrays the legal system realistically. She shows that is not always fair and it is not always just. It is through Atticus that we learn that the legal system is only as just as the community it serves.

A dominant theme in the novel is the cruelty that people inflict upon others by the holding of preformed ideas, 'the simple hell people give other people', as Dolphus Raymond puts it. It is not just the matter of the deep racial prejudice which is present in Maycomb but the intolerant, narrow, rigid codes of behaviour that most townspeople wish to impose on others. This bigotry is made all the more menacing by being depicted as 'normal' behaviour by many characters in the book. Against the background of this small town such people as Boo Radley, Dolphus Raymond and, to some extent, Maudie Atkinson, are persecuted because they do not conform. Tom Robinson is found guilty, in the face of very strong suspicion that his accusers are lying, because he went against the accepted position of a Negro and dared to feel sorry for a white person.

The bigotry of some fundamentalist religious sects is touched on in the introduction of the foot washing Baptists who criticize Miss Maudie Atkinson. Her conversation with Scout on this subject leads Scout to think about what is implied by a good and a reasonable life.

Scout also ponders over the lip service paid to the ideal of democracy ('equal rights for all, special privileges for none') when contrasted with the realities of intolerance and prejudice: for example, the horror expressed by Miss Gates at Hitler's persecution of the Jews and her own intolerance of Blacks. This is one of many instances in the novel of the contrast between reason (represented by the character of Atticus) and prejudice, which is born of ignorance and fear.

At different points in the story we find many characters who are misunderstood through ignorance and fear; often this has been the result of gossip. Subsequently, these characters are not what they truly seem to be. Most would write off Boo Radley as a reclusive madman, Miss Dubose as a mean spirited old woman, and Dolphous Raymond as a social deviant. These people are reviled by most, but these are not fair judgments. Once we get beyond the gossip surrounding these people, we get a clear view of some very strong human beings. The major problem with gossip, Lee is saying, is that people rarely stop to check whether they've got their facts right. They often pass on false, misleading and potentially hurtful information that can harm a person's reputation and character.

Many of the characters in To Kill a Mockingbird are depicted by the author as classifying each other according to rigid categories. They hold stereotypes about how individuals will behave as a result of their age, gender, race, social status, and other fixed categories. Harper Lee sets out to challenge some stereotypes but may also reinforce some alternative stereotypes. One common criticism of the novel is that the black characters are idealized. Lula is an exception, objecting to the appearance at First Purchase of the Finch children.

Harper Lee attacks the stereotype of the promiscuous and sexually voracious black man, but she endorses the stereotype of "White trash", in the Ewell family. In the USA there are many people who disapprove of dependency on the state, and on welfare payments - both the poor Cunninghams and the wealthy (but emotionally poor) Radleys are proud of their self-reliance.

The stereotype of aristocratic white women is held up to ridicule - their virtue is seen as excessive delicacy, and they appear as selfish and hypocritical. Scout wants to be like a boy, because she likes to be active. In general, the novel depicts men more favourably - or perhaps it shows that men may commit worse actions but women are more spiteful in what they say. Perhaps only a woman can be so tough in depicting her own sex (in this respect, Harper Lee writes rather in the manner of Jane Austen).

In a novel with a huge cast of characters, there is no reason to avoid using stereotypes in every case. There are plenty of characters, from Atticus to Dolphus Raymond, from Miss Maudie to Boo Radley, who do not conform to any stereotype.

When Scout and Jem receive air guns for Christmas, Atticus tells them that although he would prefer that they practice their shooting with tin cans, if they must shoot at living things, they must never shoot at mockingbirds. Atticus explains that it is a sin to kill a mockingbird. Clearly, this is the title scene, but the theme continues throughout the book. Miss Maudie explains why Atticus is correct - mockingbirds never do anyone any harm, and are not pests in any way. All they do is sing beautifully and live peacefully. Therefore, it is a sin to kill them. The mockingbird comes to represent true goodness and purity. Tom Robinson is one example of a human "mockingbird". He stands accused of raping and beating Mayella Ewell, but is innocent of the charges. The town commits the ultimate sin by finding him guilty and sentencing him to death. In effect, they have killed a mockingbird. Boo Radley is another example of a human "mockingbird". He has spent his entire life as a prisoner of his own home because his father was overzealous in punishing him for a childhood mistake. Boo Radley observes the world around him, causing no harm to anyone, and then saves Jem and Scout's lives when Bob Ewell attacks. The sheriff determines that Ewell's death will be ruled an accident to avoid forcing Boo to go to trial, even though Boo killed him to protect the children. Atticus agrees, and wants to make sure Scout understands why this little white lie must be told. She replies saying of course she understands, putting Boo on trial and in the public sphere would be like killing a mockingbird. The mockingbird represents true goodness and innocence that should always be protected.

The primary moral truth that is evident in the book is the prominence given to life and the need to safeguard it. This does not only concern the trial scene where a black man’s life is at stake, but various other instances too. Atticus values life fundamentally, even if it is that of a bird’s. He refuses to touch a gun, unless it is absolutely essential. His son too, is careful enough to preserve all the earthworms while building his snowman, and even reprimands Scout when she tries to irritate them. Dill too shows the same love for living creatures, and he says that striking a match under a turtle can hurt it. Miss Maudie loves her plants and bestows a lot of love and care on them.

Another characteristic human value depicted is the need for love and affection. Arthur Radley has lived an entire life deprived of companionship. Dill, starved of love, weaves fantastic stories which reveals the tragic nature of his life. Mayella too, through her words, reveals a desire for love and affection which she had only received from Tom Robinson.

Tolerance and patience are the other morals taught in this novel. Atticus teaches his children to tolerate Mrs Dubose’s vitriolic tongue, because she had a need for them. He teaches them to be patient with Aunt Alexandra, who had never dealt with children before. And most importantly, he teaches them to be tolerant of other’s beliefs and values as he says: "You can never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view -- until you climb into his skin and walk around in it."

These values and morals have one unifying message -- man needs the society he lives in. All men are equal and it is pointless to make distinctions. Only by living together in deliberate tolerance and love can one make the best of life.

Though the tone throughout is sombre and interspersed with serious thoughts, yet Harper Lee has injected humour in novel. She has made a subtle use of humour, so that the reader can comprehend the serious messages with the agreeable flavour of humour. Scout’s childish viewing of the entire scenario touches the reader’s heart and brings a smile to the face, while going through the entire gamut of experiences that childhood is all about. Thus she very effectively blends entertainment with serious morality.

The lesson of equality is also imparted very effectively. It is well brought out that man has needlessly differentiated between the colour of complexion of people and so formed barriers of prejudice. Harper has taken pains to convey the message that one must learn to be tolerant towards others. Only then can a better understanding and a stronger bond of mankind be formed. 

Many facets of courage are shown in To Kill a Mockingbird. The physical courage of Atticus facing the Cunningham gang and the mad dog; the spiritual courage of Mrs Dubose, determined to break her addiction to morphine before she dies; the cheerfulness with which Miss Maudie Atkinson accepts the loss of her house through fire; the courage which is required to carry through one's job in the face of antipathy and opposition as Atticus does in taking on the defence of Tom Robinson. Courage involves things like fighting with your head rather than with your fists and living with your own conscience. "It's when you know you're licked before you begin," says Atticus, "but you begin anyway and you see it through no matter what".

Women were discriminated against in Alabama in the 1930s. They had only been granted the right to vote in 1920 and were not allowed to serve on juries. They were not expected to have a career but to get married and have children. Women were expected to follow stricter moral and behavioural codes than men. Lee's treatment of gender is controversial. Some people argue that Lee doesn't really question the role of women in society in the novel; in fact, she appears to reinforce the attitudes of the time. But others disagree.

When Scout and Atticus discuss women not being allowed to serve on juries in Alabama, some people argue that through Atticus's reaction Lee is reinforcing the attitude that women are not intellectually or emotionally capable of serving on a jury.

Some people have argued that Lee, through the way she portrays Mayella Ewell, is suggesting that there are two classes of women in society: respectable women like Miss Maudle and '"White trash" like Mayella Ewell. They argue that Lee doesn't really encourage us to sympathise with Mayella or see her as a victim. Others disagree and say Lee, through the comments of Scout and Tom Robinson (who says he feels sorry for her), encourages us to feel sympathy for Mayella.

Much of To Kill a Mockingbird is concerned with what the poet Robert Burns called "man's inhumanity to man" and what Mr. Dolphus Raymond calls "the simple hell people give other people." We witness Bob Ewell's inhumanity towards his daughter; the inhumanity shown by the Radleys towards their son; the inhumanity shown by white people towards Blacks. On another level we see how artificial barriers between people are created by vague conceptions like "breeding" and "background" and "our kind of folks". The children find all this difficult to understand. Jem has a theory that "there's four kinds of folks in, the world" (Chapter 23), but Scout thinks there is just one kind of folks. But if there is, asks Jem, why can't, they get along with each other? "If they're all alike, why do they go out of their way to despise I each other?" Understanding adults and their world is difficult. Scout is often confused and rebellious; Dill is at first disillusioned and then cynical; Jem finds it a sad business and at one point he thinks he understands why Boo Radley never comes out of the house "it's because he wants to stay inside".

Harper Lee explores the loneliness people experience through many of the characters in this novel. Boo Radley, Tom Robinson and Mayella Ewell are all outcasts, isolated and rejected. Mr Dolphus Raymond has accepted his rejection and turned it to his advantage. Boo Radley and Tom Robinson are "mockingbird" figures who are needlessly tormented by society. Mayella lacks love and understanding, and her need for these brings about Tom's downfall. Scout comes to see her as the loneliest person in the world. "She was even lonelier than Boo Radley, who had not been out of the house in twenty five years".

In To Kill a Mockingbird Harper Lee touches on many social questions. Foremost among these is the problem of racism in the southern states of America in the mid 1930s. The focus for this is the charge brought by Bob Ewell against Tom Robinson and the way in which the anti African-American feeling in Maycomb is the cause of animosity towards Atticus and his family because of his defence of Tom. It is manifested in the Cunninghams' attempt to lynch Tom and Mr Gilmer's contemptuous cross examination in the courtroom. It is also evident in Aunt Alexandra's disapproval of Calpurnia and in the hypocritical attitudes of Miss Gates and the ladies of the Missionary Circle.

The "rigid and time honoured code" of society was that, while, white people could employ and even exploit African-Americans, there could be no personal relationship between African-Americans and whites and no recognition that African-Americans had the same reactions and feelings as white people. Further, there was an evil assumption "that all Blacks lie, that all Blacks are basically immoral beings". They certainly did not have the benefit of the supposed impartiality of the law. The Reverend Sykes says, "I ain't ever seen any jury decide in favour of a coloured man over a white man". Atticus does not understand "why reasonable people go stark raving mad when anything involving a Negro comes up" and he calls this emotional attitude "Maycomb's usual disease". Mr Dolphus Raymond talks about "the hell white people give coloured folks, without even stopping to think that they're people too." Atticus fears that "one of these days we're going to pay the bill for it".

'As you grow older, you'll see white men cheat black men every day of your life ... There's nothing more sickening to me than a low grade white man who'll take advantage of a Negro's ignorance.' - Atticus Finch

Differences in social status are largely explored through the overcomplicated social hierarchy of Maycomb, the ins and outs of which are constantly baffling to the children. The relatively well-off Finches are near the top of Maycomb's social hierarchy, with most of the townspeople beneath them. Ignorant country farmers like the Cunninghams are below the townspeople, and the white trash Ewells are below the Cunninghams. But the black community in Maycomb, despite its abundance of admirable qualities, is below even the Ewells, enabling Bob Ewell to make up for his own lack of importance by persecuting Tom Robinson. Part of the adult world, these rigid social divisions are both irrational and destructive. For example, Scout cannot understand why Aunt Alexandra refuses to let her consort with young Walter Cunningham. Lee uses the children's perplexity at the unpleasant layering of Maycomb society to critique the role of class status, and ultimately prejudice, in human interaction.

At one point in the novel (Chapter 10), Atticus shoots a once friendly dog that has become rabid. Similarly, Atticus must take an offensive position against Bob Ewell, who threatens to destroy the Negro population and its white sympathisers. A sudden, cry to justice means that a violent and unreasonable man like Bob Ewell must be stopped from wreaking havoc among temperate people.

Racial hostility in the novel is not merely one way, as we realise when one Negro woman voices a menacing complaint against the Finch children when they enter the Negro chapel with Calpurnia. Friction between members of the same race is also aroused during this incident, for this same woman also suggests that Calpurnia's loyalties are suspect because she is the servant of a white family. These bitter words indicate the resentment with which the Negro population regards the oppressive white community. Such maltreatment as the Negroes have endured is certain to lead to retaliation through reverse discrimination.

Bravery takes many forms in To Kill a Mockingbird. Atticus is brave to defend a black man in the face of criticism and threats of violence. He also is brave in the face of danger, both when he kills the rabid dog with a single shot and when facing the mob of men outside the jailhouse. Atticus urges Scout to be brave and prevent herself from fighting those who criticize her or her family. To Atticus, withholding violence is one of the highest forms of bravery. The children believe themselves to be brave when approaching the Radley house early in the book, but learn later on that this was false bravery, and in fact, silly. Atticus holds up Mrs. Dubose as the ultimate definition of bravery, as she finds against her morphine addiction in order to be free from it before she dies, even when she knows she will die in the process. Atticus, who also fights against a power greater than himself, tells his children they should have great respect for Mrs. Dubose. Finally, Bob Ewell represents the greatest cowardice, as he both lies in the courtroom to protect himself and resorts to attacking children in the darkness in order to make himself feel more of a man.